Acrostichum Speciosum (Swamp Fern)

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Acrostichum speciosum, the mangrove swamp fern is a widespread plant found in Asia and Australia. A clumping plant to 1.5 metres tall with reddish/brown fertile fronds and pointed leaf tips. It is found as far south as New South Wales.

The more delicate and elegant of our mangrove ferns, it is often seen in back mangroves, flourishing on mud lobster mounds and other higher ground, usually in the shade. The leaflets are thin and short (1.5-2m long) and young fronds are green or brownish-green. Rhizomes covered with scales up to 8mm long. The first few pairs near the tips are fertile leaflets, the underside covered below with dark brown spores (sporangia). Sterile leaflets gradually tapering to a narrow tip.

Sketch of Acrostichum Speciosum (Swamp Fern)

Among the first large low-growing plants to grow on the landward side of the mangrove, the ferns provide shade for other plants and trees to take root. But in cleared mangroves, the ferns can take over so rapidly that they form impenetrable thickets which prevent other plants from taking root. Thus it is often considered a weed. For animals, these thickets provide safety and shelter. And for birds, a safe place to nest.

The young leaves are eaten in Borneo, the Celebes and Timor. Medical uses including placing pounded or grated rhizomes as a paste on wounds and boils in Malaya and Borneo. In some parts of our region, the leaves are dried and used as thatching which is considered superior because they last longer. And should they catch fire, they burn so quickly into ash that the fire is not sustained to endanger any other parts of the home.

Ficus Microcarpa (Malayan Banyan)

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Ficus microcarpa is also known as chinese banyan, malayan banyan, Indian laurel or gajumaru. It is a fast-growing, usually evergreen tree about 30 meters tall and wide, with a flattened or rounded crown. In Peninsular Malaysia, it is common along coasts and in swamps. Its habitat are coastal sites that are dry and that the Chinese planted this species near their shrines.

Branches are horizontal or ascending, with a dense curtain of aerial roots hanging from them, some of which becoming pillar-like to support the widespread branches. These pillar-like roots from large trees can form impenetrable thickets. White latex oozes from all cut surfaces, which may be a defensive adaptation to discourage herbivores as the latex gums up the jaws of the herbivore.

The stalked, alternate leaves have a slightly fleshy or leathery, elliptic, with matte, mid-green upper sides and lighter green below, and flat margins, and rounded tips. The plant is monoecious, producing unisexual flowers on the same individual. Both male and female flowers are stalkless.

The Banyan tree roots has been used as traditional folk medicine for flu, malaria, acute enteritis, and tonsillitis. Due to it’s ability to absorb heavy metals from the soil, it has the potential to be a low environmental risk soil cleaner. Malaysians and singaporeans sometimes refuse to fell large Banyan trees due to Malay and peranakan folklore. Malayan banyan is tolerant of roadside pollution such as sulphur dioxide, lead and cadmium.

This tree may not be desired by the superstitious, because Malay and Peranakan folklore of Southeast Asia associate spirits, ghosts, or the “pontianak” (a woman who died at childbirth to become an undead, female vampire who terrorizes the living) with large trees. Malaysian and Singapore tree cutters often offer prayers before felling large fig trees to appease the resident spirit, or if the tree is too large, they often refuse to fell it.

Avicennia Officinalis (Api-Api Ludat)

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Avicennia officinalis, or commonly known as Indian mangrove is commonly found at the lower intertidal zone on soft, recently consolidated mudbanks, river mudbanks or at river mouths. The plant can be found in Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam. In Malay, it is called as api-api ludat.

The tree can grow up to a height of 20 meters. The trunk has low aerial roots; the bark is smooth and reddish-brown when young and grey-brown when old and is commonly fissured. The “pencil” like pneumatophores are 20 to 30 cm tall. The leaves are egg-shaped to elliptical with a rounded tip; arranged in opposite pairs with bright shiny green on the top surface and pale with fine hairs on the under surface.

The fruit is a velvety pale grey-green, compressed, elongated and somewhat elliptical in shape. The fruit can be eaten and the wood is used as fuel wood. The flower is the largest among the Avicennia species has a diameter of 6 to 10 mm when expanded. It is orange-yellow to lemon-yellow in color.

Sketch of Avicennia officinalis

The wood used to construct boats, houses, and wharves as well as has been recommended for creosoted paving blocks. Its wood is attractive enough of grain to be useful in cabinetry. The bark is used for dying cloth, while the ash is for washing cloth purpose in India. The bark and roots are used for tanning, whereas the bark resin is used in traditional medicine as a contraceptive. Javanese and others may consume the bitter fruits and seeds after rather elaborate processing. The branches are lopped and given to cattle for fodder.

Morinda Citrifolia (Noni)

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Morinda citrifolia, commonly known as noni, is a small evergreen tree or shrub, 3-10m in height at maturity. Noni has an extremely wide range of environmental tolerances. It can grow in infertile, acidic and alkaline soils and is at home in very dry to very wet areas. It grows wild in coastal areas. Leaves are large, simple and broadly elliptical. The flowers have white petals. The fruit is yellowish-white, fleshy, 5-10cm long and about 3-4cm in diameter when ripe. Noni has an extensive lateral root system and a deep taproot.

Noni is cultivated for its medicinal properties. It is used in both traditional and contemporary medicine to treat diseases such as malaria, jaundice, hypertension, arthritis, asthma and even cancer. The bark contains a red pigment and the roots contain a yellow pigment, both used in making dyes. The plants within the genus provide much of the dyes for the batik industry especially red, purple, brown and pink colours. The fruits are edible but tend to be rancid. The wood can be used in light construction, canoe parts and axes. The trunk can be used as firewood. Very young leaves can be cooked and eaten as vegetables.

Avicennia Alba (Api-Api Putih)

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Avicennia alba, api-api putih in Malay is a species of tropical mangrove that belong to the family Acanthaceae. The shrub or tree normally grow up to 20 metres (66 ft) height. It is found in south and South East Asia, the islands of the South Pacific Ocean and Australia. Avicennia alba sometimes will be planted along with Sonneratia and Rhizaphora to help prevent coastal erosion.

The leaflets are dark green on the top side and pale-coloured, while whitish colour on the undersides. It will be around 8-12 cm long and pointed and is simple, opposite leaves with pointed tips. The flowers are orange-yellow colour with around 10-30 flowers on each unit. Each flower is only about 0.5cm in diameter with four equal lobed petals that are smooth on the inside. Stamens are short as it only about 2mm long and does not protrude or thrust outwards, while the ovary is about 2mm long and without a style.

The fruits of avicennia alba are greyish-green capsules and conical in shape that extends to a pronounced pointed tip. The fruits is about 1cm to 4cm with a smooth velvety outer skin and each fruit contains a single seed. Roots of avicennia alba are in pencil-like aerial shape which known as pneumatophores. The roots is about 20cm to 30 cm tall with a tapered bluntly pointed end. Bark of avicennia alba are dark grey or brown in colour. It’s smooth or slightly roughened, but not fissured.

Sketch of Avicennia Alba

The roots said to aid in sediment accretion and land building as it’s a pioneering species that grows on newly formed mud. The timber being treated as low quality construction timber as it does not make good firewood or charcoal, however it’s used in the smoking of rubber and of fish. An extract of the heartwood is used in herbal medicine to make a tonic and the resin has been used in birth control or prevent pregnancy.

Sonneratia Alba (Perepat)

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Sonneratia alba, commonly known as mangrove apple, is a species of plant in the family Lythraceae. The fruit is noted for its outward similarity to the persimmon fruit. This tree is a type of mangrove growing up to 20 m in height and with a trunk reaching a maximum diameter of 50 cm. It is present in tropical tidal mudflats from Africa to Indonesia, southwards down to Northeast Australia and New Caledonia and northwards up to Hainan Island in China and the Philippines.

The barks are cream to light grey in colour, finely fissured. Thick underground cable roots spread out from the trunk. These bear sturdy conical pneumatophores (25cm to 1m tall). But the tree may lack pneumatophores if it grows on a solid substrate.

Leaves nearly circular or spoon-shaped (5-12.5cm) tapering at the base, thick and leathery. Young leaves are pale green with a faint tinge of pink at the leaf ‘tip’. Flowers large (10cm diameter) with 6 petals narrow white often inconspicuous, and many long white stamens that are pink at the base, forming a powder-puff shape. Stiff cup-shaped calyx with sepals broadly triangular and reddish on the inside.

The wood of Sonneratia alba can be used as firewood, but not when other trees are available. The fruits are eaten when “quite ripe” by the Malays and in Java and used to flavour fish in the Moluccas. The leaves are also eaten raw and cooked. The fruits are sour but edible. The fruits are used in a compress to check haemorrhaging. The ripe fruit is said to taste like cheese. The timber is used for boats and houses in Indonesia, as well as bridge and wharf construction. Also for interior work including furniture, musical instruments but requires bronze nails. The Papuans make corks and float out of the buoyant pneumatophores. The plant is used in traditional medicine to treat cuts and bruises. The fruit is used to treat intestinal parasites and coughs.

Rhizophora Apiculata (Bakau Minyak)

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Rhizophora apiculata is a nationally common mangrove plant of the genus Rhizophora belonging to the family Rhizophoraceae. Locals often call it as bakau minyak because its roots look oily when it is moist and contact with water. Rhizophora apiculata Blume is one of the most important species in mangrove forest. This species is widespread and often can be found in most mangrove swamps.

Sketch of Rhizophora Apiculata (Bakau Minyak)

It is a medium-sized tree that can grow up to 30m tall and with the trunk up to 75cm in diameter. The bark is smooth and grey with shallow vertical furrows and small breathing pores. Its stem is supported by numerous branched stilt roots and the roots can extend 6m up the stem.

Underside of leaf blade showing tiny black spots

It has leathery leaves that are narrowly elliptic with pointed tips and the stipule is often tinged red. Moreover, the bottom surface of the leaves is yellowish green and tiny black spots can be seen on the underside of the leaf blades. Its flowers are creamy white in colour and the bract is brown, hard and thick. Meanwhile, the fruit is brown or olive coloured and it has an ovoid or upside-down pear-shaped. The hypocotyl is cylindrical to club-shaped, smooth and shining with somewhat rounded tip.

The fruit is occasionally eaten even though it is bitter in taste. It is prepared by first boiling it, then adding wood ashes in order to neutralize the bitterness. The fruit is then baked and eaten. On top of that, the ripened fruits have been consumed by mangrove society in Indonesia. So, it simply means that the juicy fruit can be cooked and eaten raw as well as the juice can be extracted to make wine. On the other hand, the young shoots can also be consumed as a vegetable.

Besides, the bark extract is being used as antiseptic and curing diseases such as diarrhea, nausea, malaria, fungal infections and so on. In India, the bark is used to treat diabetes. Furthermore, since the bark is rich in tannin, therefore it is used for tanning leather and to toughen and dye fishing lines, ropes and nets. Apart from that, its leaves are also prescribed for fever and old leaves are being used as the decoction at childbirth.

Next, since the wood is hard and heavy, thus it is widely used for heavy constructions, foundations in piling, beams and the outriggers of dugout canoes as well as furniture and interiors of houses. Moreover, the wood is also used for foundations of bridges and wharves as it is durable in water and under-ground. In addition, as the wood can be split easily and has a high energy value, hence it is highly suitable for producing good quality charcoal and firewood.

Rhizophora Mucronata (Bakau Kurap)

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Rhizophora mucronata, also as know as bakau kurap, is a small to medium size evergreen tree growing to a height of about 30m tall and has curved stilt roots. Rhizophora mucronata is found in the Indo-Pacific region on the banks of rivers and on the edge of the sea. It is the only mangrove species to be found in East Africa; native to Africa, Asia, South Pacific and Australia. It more tolerant of inundation than other mangrove species and often forms an evergreen fringe to mangrove areas.

The bark is dark brown with reddish-black patches, scaly and flaky with occasional horizontal fissures around the stem. Broadly elliptic to slightly oblong leathery leaves, measuring 11 – 23 by 5 – 23 cm, opposite arrangement. The leaves are clustered at the end of the twigs. Flower stalks usually have 2 – 5 flowers, each on a 2.5 – 5 cm long individual stalk. Buds are widest near the base and have two 2-lobed leaflets near the base. The fruit is 5-7cm long, wide and brown and shaped like an inverted pear. The seedlings are viviparous, 60cm long, warty and has a pointed tip that benefits the seed when it falls to the mud when it ripens.

Sketch of Rhizophora Mucronata (Bakau Kurap)

It is used to help prevent coastal erosion and in restoration of mangrove habitats. The timber is used for firewood and in the construction of buildings, as poles and pilings, and in making fish traps. The fruits can be cooked and eaten or the juice extracted to make wine, and the young shoots can be consumed as a vegetable. The bark is used in tanning and a dye can be extracted from both bark and leaves.

Various parts of the plant are used in folk medicine. In Chinese and Japanese herbal medicine, a decoction of the bark is used to treat diarrhoea. The Burmese use the bark to treat blood in the urine and the Indochinese use the roots to contain bleeding.

It may also be planted to protect bunds and dykes. Seedlings that have been dried in the shade for several days before planting avoid being eaten by crabs. It is believed the process causes accumulations of tannin in the tissues.

Bruguiera Cylindrica (Bakau Putih)

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Sketch of Bruguiera cylindrica (Bakau Putih)

Bruguiera cylindrica, bakau putih in malay usually grows on firm clay at the seaward side of mangrove forests, usually behind the more salt tolerant species. This tree grows up to a height of 23m.

The base has short angled buttresses and the roots project above the ground to form knee roots. These knee roots have lenticels which allow gaseous exchange in the oxygen-poor and often waterlogged soil. The roots spread over a wide area to help stabilise the tree on the unstable ground. This tree relies on its roots to exclude salt from entering the plant through a process called ultrafiltration. The bark is grey with patches of sooty “rust”.

The leaves are arranged in pairs at right angles to each other. The flowers grow in groupings of 2-5, usually 3.

Vivipary is observed in this plant whereby the embryo grows and break through the seed coat and the fruit wall while still attached to the parent plant. Hence, the thin and long structures seen hanging from the trees are the seedlings, not fruits. The seeds develop as an extended root-seed up to 15cm in length. They are cylindrical, pencil-like and are usually curved, green in colour but turn brown when ripe and when ready to fall.

The seedling is dispersed by water. It floats horizontally for a few weeks, during which the root (lower part) will absorb water and become heavier, eventually causing the seedling to tip and float vertically. As the tide goes down, the vertically-oriented seedling will sink into the mud or other suitable substrates. Most of the seedlings, however, end up being washed ashore or eaten by animals. As the seedlings are thin and long, many of them also ended up settling directly under the parent tree, as they drop and poke into the soil below.

The wood of the Bruguiera is resistant to insects and moisture and makes excellent support and beams for Malay houses. It is also important in the charcoal industry. The wood is also known to have an odour which repels fish, and hence is not used for making fish traps.

Bruguiera Parviflora (Lenggadai)

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Bruguiera parviflora is a tree in the family Rhizophoraceae. Lenggadai is commonly found closer to the landward or the bund border of the mangrove. This tree can grow to a height of 30m, has a grey smooth bark with lighter blotches.

Sketch of Bruguiera Parviflora (Lenggadai)

The base of the tree has buttresses with roots radiating from the tree loop above and below ground forming knee roots. These knee roots have lenticels which allow gaseous exchange in the oxygen-poor and often waterlogged soil. The roots spread over a wide area to help stabilise the tree on the unstable ground. This tree relies on its roots to exclude salt from entering the plant through a process called ultrafiltration.

The twigs are green with reddish-brown scars. The elliptical, yellowish green leaves are in opposite pairs at right angles to each other.

The flowers are in groups of 2-5 per leaf angle with yellow-green sepals that remain pointing parallel to the long axis of the fruit.

The fruit pods are smooth cylinders with a pencil-like shape up to 13cm long. The seed germinates within the fruit. Vivipary is observed in this plant whereby the embryo grows and break through the seed coat and the fruit wall while still attached to the parent plant. Hence, the thin and long structures seen hanging from the trees are the seedlings, not fruits.

The seedling is dispersed by water. It floats horizontally for a few weeks, during which the root (lower part) will absorb water and become heavier, eventually causing the seedling to tip and float vertically. As the tide goes down, the vertically-oriented seedling will sink into the mud or other suitable substrates. Most of the seedlings, however, end up being washed ashore or eaten by animals. As the seedlings are thin and long, many of them also ended up settling directly under the parent tree, as they drop and poke into the soil below.

The wood from this tree produces good charcoal and pulp. It is usually used as firewood or for mining and making fishing-stakes. The germinating seedling is sometimes eaten as a vegetable. This species is endangered.